By Artemio Paz (Advisor: Dr. Maquivar)
Summary: Agricultural workers play a critical role in sustaining the U.S. animal health and livestock industries, yet effective communication between Spanish-speaking workers and English-speaking veterinarians remains a persistent challenge. The sustainability of livestock operations depends on clear, accurate communication regarding animal care, disease prevention, treatment protocols, and daily management practices. As the agricultural workforce increasingly consists of Spanish-speaking employees with limited English proficiency, communication gaps have become more pronounced, leading to risks such as improper drug administration, misdiagnoses, workplace injuries, and reduced opportunities for worker advancement.
This literature review examines the demographic trends, cultural dynamics, and language barriers that shape interactions between veterinarians and Spanish-speaking agricultural workers. It argues that improving communication requires intentional, research-supported strategies, including English-language training for workers and Spanish-language instruction for veterinarians. By analyzing current challenges and evaluating emerging educational programs, this review highlights the need for targeted language training and cultural competency development to strengthen workplace relationships, enhance animal welfare, and support the long-term success of U.S. livestock production.
Conclusions: Communication between Spanish-speaking agricultural workers and English-speaking veterinarians is a critical yet often overlooked component of U.S. livestock production. As this paper has demonstrated, demographic trends, linguistic barriers, cultural differences, and workplace dynamics collectively influence how information is exchanged on farms. When communication breaks down, the consequences can be significant. Misunderstandings related to animal behavior, treatment protocols, safety procedures, and daily management tasks may contribute to preventable injuries, reduced productivity, and compromised animal welfare.
Although research specifically examining communication barriers between Spanish-speaking agricultural workers and veterinarians’ remains limited, emerging approaches in language technology and artificial intelligence (AI) provide promising opportunities to improve communication within livestock systems. Recent advances in AI-powered translation tools, speech recognition, and large language models have enabled real-time multilingual communication, automated translation of educational materials, and development of interactive training resources. In agricultural settings, these technologies could support communication between veterinarians, managers, and workers by providing immediate translation assistance during routine conversations, improving accessibility of animal health protocols, and delivering safety and welfare training in workers’ preferred language. However, AI technologies should be viewed as a communication aid rather than a replacement for human interaction, as accurate translation of veterinary terminology, treatment instructions, and culturally sensitive conversations requires professional oversight and contextual understanding.
The research reviewed in this paper highlights that addressing communication challenges requires more than informal translation or unstructured communication strategies. Effective solutions must be intentional, standardized, and supported by evidence. Programs such as Spanish for Specific Purposes in Agriculture (SSPA), Spanish for Veterinary Professionals, and the Graduate Certificate in Spanish for the Veterinary Professional demonstrate the value of discipline-specific language instruction, cultural competency training, and experiential learning. These initiatives not only improve communication skills but also strengthen trust, increase worker confidence, and support more accurate and humane animal care.
Looking forward, the livestock industry should prioritize bilingual education, culturally responsive management practices, and innovative communication technologies to reduce language barriers. Culturally responsive management refers to leadership approaches that recognize and respect differences in language, communication styles, workplace experiences, and cultural backgrounds while creating an environment where employees feel valued, respected, and comfortable expressing concerns. In practice, this includes adapting training methods, encouraging open dialogue, and ensuring that employees have equitable access to important information related to animal care and workplace safety.
By integrating language education, culturally responsive leadership, standardized communication systems, and emerging AI-based technologies, agricultural operations can develop more effective and sustainable communication strategies. Bridging the communication gap between veterinarians and Spanish-speaking agricultural workers is not simply a matter of convenience; it is essential for improving worker safety, strengthening animal welfare practices, and supporting the long-term sustainability of the livestock industry.
By Caitlyn Cathey (Advisor: Dr. Huyvaert)
Summary: Mycoplasma ovipneumoniae is an infectious respiratory pathogen that typically causes minimal disease and asymptomatic carriage in domestic sheep but poses a threat to many wildlife species including bighorn sheep. To date, there are no effective treatment or preventative measures for M. ovipneumoniae in domestic or bighorn sheep. Understanding how the immune system plays a role in disease progression and immunity can help build a foundation for future research into M. ovipneumoniae treatment and prevention. Since IgG antibodies can be used to measure certain aspects of the humoral immune response in mammals, serum IgG concentration was compared to M. ovipneumoniae PCR status, age, breeding status, breed, in domestic sheep as a step to better understanding M. ovipneumoniae effects on the domestic sheep immune system.There was no statistically significant difference between serum IgG and PCR status, breeding stage, or sheep breed, but there was a significant difference between serum IgG and age.
Conclusions: The lack of humoral immune activation in M. ovipneumoniae PCR positive sheep indicated in this study supplements other findings that demonstrate serum titers testing is not definitive for M. ovipneumoniae detection in domestic sheep35 and is important for future M. ovipneumoniae research and vaccine development. Targeting IgG production may not be a viable direction for future M. ovipneumoniae vaccines, as M. ovipneumoniae doesn’t appear to elicit a strong IgG response in domestic sheep. Investigating other aspects of the immune system that may have more sterilizing potential for M. ovipneumoniae, like respiratory IgA antibodies or components of the cellular immune system, may progress our understanding of how to prevent and treat this disease in domestic and bighorn sheep.
By Elizabeth Couglan (Advisor: Dr. Christensen)
Summary: This study was conducted to determine the extent to which the SenseHub Youngstock monitoring system can aid in the detection of emerging illnesses prior to identification by human personnel within a calf stock cohort. This study is an example of technological application within livestock production systems. The hypothesis in question is whether technology can enable earlier intervention in health events. Early intervention could be clinically and financially relevant for a young stock system, since it could result in shortened and less severe morbidity, reduced antimicrobial usage, and an overall healthier calf population. This study also provided a model to compare technological monitoring versus human observation when assessing large herds for sick calves. The study involved 1,000 Holstein calves, which were fitted with SenseHub Youngstock Ear Tags through rolling enrollment over a three-month period. Analysis of the data revealed that the monitoring system could detect calves with suboptimal health, on average two days before the onset of clinical signs, thereby enabling earlier initiation of treatment.
The main limitations related to this product were transmission issues, tag installation issues, and data retention issues. While this study was the first to examine the SenseHub Youngstock ear tags in a calf ranch in the Northwest, there are many potential opportunities to expand this project based on the results already found. The project initially was going to randomize the use of transdermal Banamine to assess if anti-inflammatories can reduce the duration of illness and need for antimicrobials. Further avenues to pursue related to this technology would be tracking weight gain throughout the hutch period in relation to health events alerted, altering the threshold of the health index to adjust the sensitivity, and tracking cows’ long term to understand how disease in calves affects production years later.
Conclusions: The objective of this study was to understand the ability and utility of SenseHub Young Stock technology to accurately detect calves in need of further evaluation. The hypothesis was that this system would be more sensitive in detection of calves in need of further diagnostic evaluation than the current on-farm protocols. Indirectly, this project also evaluated the ability to implement and incorporate new systems in a large Western dairy, along with discovering opportunities for future improvement of the product.
One finding from the study was the hesitation and pushback received from the operation when considering implementation of a new system that would alter established protocols. The biggest source of skepticism was whether the product is worth the investment. The intention of the system was to increase labor availability and more strategically allocate time or resources, improving production and profit. This factor will be farm dependent as large operations are already so efficient it may not significantly improve statistics whereas farms with less oversight may see more benefit from additional monitoring. It was suspected this was the case for this specific study as there was less margin for improvement to begin with.
One question that remains and warrants further investigation is the significance of apparently healthy calves that trigger alerts. More broadly, it would be necessary to determine whether this subset of calves is in an infancy disease process or being reported as a false positive. Based on the findings of this study, many of these calves develop disease warranting treatment or remain abnormal for several days. From a producer standpoint, this group is worth monitoring as there are potential small adjustments, such as starting non-steroidal anti-inflammatories, which would result in improved overall herd health, productivity and profitability.
This study suggested that SenseHub could increase timing of disease detection in a young stock operation. However, as with many new technological advancements, it has limitations that still need addressed and may not be applicable to every young stock operation. More data would also be helpful in solidifying the benefits this technology showed. Every technological tool introduced into agriculture should be carefully considered on a cost-benefit ratio for the producer and animals involved. Technology is still an important part of the future of modern agriculture, and only with experimentation and evaluation can the value of these technologies be determined.
By Joni Dalley (Advisor: Dr. Marre)
Summary: Artificial insemination is an important reproductive management tool utilized in small ruminant production. These specialized services can be utilized to increase pregnancy rates, improve herd genetics, shorten generational intervals, increase productivity, and lower disease incidence. This paper outlines a general overview of the key aspects of assisted reproduction in sheep and goats including reproductive anatomy and physiology, estrus synchronization, herd-management considerations, semen collection and preservation, and the major methods of artificial insemination. Emphasis is placed on laparoscopic artificial insemination (AI), including animal selection, estrous synchronization, timing, procedural technique, cost-benefit analysis, animal welfare considerations, and limitations to the procedure. Laparoscopic AI is important in small-ruminant production, particularly in sheep, where complex cervical anatomy limits the effectiveness of other assisted reproductive techniques. Laparoscopic AI can facilitate the rapid dissemination of desirable genetics while allowing the use of cryopreserved semen. Regardless of the method used, artificial insemination is the method of choice for rapid proliferation of desirable genetics in ovine and caprine populations. Successful implementation of AI protocols in a group requires sound herd health, nutrition, genetic selection, and record-keeping practices to obtain a significant number of genetically valuable offspring to justify the investment in integrating AI protocols.
Conclusions: Assisted reproduction techniques provide a valuable method for accelerating genetic improvement in small-ruminant production, particularly when laparoscopic AI is utilized. The effectiveness of these techniques is influenced by semen quality, synchronization protocols and estrus detection, female reproductive and health status, herd management, and operator experience. Although these procedures can improve access to valuable genetics and achieve useful pregnancy rates, they also require specialized equipment, technical training, and careful attention to pain management and animal welfare. Appropriate candidate selection and comprehensive herd-health, nutritional, genetic, and record-keeping programs are therefore essential components of a successful assisted reproduction program.
By Kaitlin Mirkin (Advisor: Dr. Abbot)
Summary: During wildfire season in the Pacific Northwest (PNW), it is easy to visualize the physical destruction brought about by fires. However, they have implications far beyond the damage we can see. Wildfires are predicted to increase in frequency and severity and are influenced by many different variables. The smoke released from wildfires consists of molecules and compounds that invoke damage, both acute and chronic, when they are inhaled. The impacts of wildfire smoke in human health have been on ongoing areas of research. Respiratory and cardiovascular morbidity are two areas of primary concern, though effects on other organ systems have also been observed. It has been hypothesized that livestock raised outdoors, dairy cattle being one of the most notable species, experience many similar effects to humans. In dairy cattle, consequences from wildfire smoke inhalation have important impacts on production. Not only are there effects on milk yield, but also on growth and herd health. Prevention, treatment, and management of these effects in dairy cattle pose unique challenges to the industry of veterinary medicine.
Conclusions: The United States, and the Pacific Northwest in particular, continues to experience the aftermath of changes in wildfire and wildfire smoke concentration. It is important to acknowledge that these fires have implications on human and animal health even after they have been extinguished. Wildfire smoke and particulate matter have multiple inflammatory and toxic effects when encountered in the atmosphere. Although a strong body of research exists on these effects in humans, there is still much to be learned about how animals are affected. Production livestock, and dairy cattle in particular, are an important group that is largely susceptible to adverse effects from wildfire smoke. Many of these can be predicted reliably and follow similar trends to those seen in human medicine. However, effects on growth, milk production, and milk composition have yet to be fully explored. These are important and relevant parameters for veterinary medicine as dairy producers in rural communities rely on these factors for their operations to be profitable. Further research on prevention, intervention, and treatment of downstream effects is needed to both establish strong animal welfare and protect a species which contributes largely to the American food source and economy. Wildfire smoke will continue to plague the atmosphere for years to come, and veterinarians play an important role in utilizing the literature to protect vulnerable animal populations, such as dairy cattle, against its widespread damage.
By McCall DeChenne (Advisor: Dr. Bradley)
Summary: Small ruminant species, specifically sheep and goats, are an increasingly growing sector within our agricultural animal species. With uses ranging from meat, dairy, fiber, and pack animals; their popularity as pets and within backyard hobby farms has also been on the rise. Given the national shortage of food animal practitioners, it is in the interest of the profession to educate and prepare new graduates to feel confident and competent in treating small ruminant species. In addition to the rise in popularity as pets and backyard farms, various urban locations are now allowing small ruminants to be kept within city limits. This highlights the idea that companion animal practitioners would also benefit from education on general small ruminant medicine. This paper will cover areas of small ruminant medicine that are recognized as some of the most common issues and highlight the skills and knowledge areas that are needed to address them. The topics covered in this review are divided into three main categories: emergencies, herd health considerations, and routine care. The goal of this paper is to improve the knowledge and confidence of general practitioners in the diagnosis and management of common small ruminant conditions. This paper will also be utilizing a practical skills list developed for food animal graduates to connect the hands-on techniques with the knowledge of the diseases and conditions discussed.
Conclusions: By becoming familiar with common small ruminant emergencies, major herd health concerns, and routine care treatments, many mixed animal or companion animal practitioners can confidently expand their patient realms to include these species. As the veterinary profession adapts to a changing environment where food animal practitioners are fewer and far between, the care that small ruminants need can be easily taken on by mixed animal or companion animal practitioners. Although the practical skills list mentioned throughout this paper is focused on food animal veterinary graduates, if any practitioner takes these skills mentioned above into consideration and incorporates these skills into their clinical practice, then they will be better prepared to recognize, manage, and appropriately refer common small ruminant health concerns. As for new graduates, both the topics mentioned above, and the skills listed to address them can serve as a form of self-audit to gather information on whether they are prepared to handle common small ruminant medicine issues. There is limited published consensus on small ruminant practical skills for new graduates, and it would be beneficial to the veterinary field to have a study similar to the skills list referenced in this paper that is devoted to sheep and goats. That would not only help new graduates ensure they are prepared for a career in small ruminant medicine but allow academic institutions to audit their curriculums and ensure they are teaching an appropriate set of skills. This paper serves to highlight the top emergencies, herd concerns, and general husbandry procedures that are relevant within small ruminant medicine. Further study and application of practicing the practical skills is needed to fully prepare oneself for a career involving small ruminant medicine. However, by increasing awareness of the topics and the skills needed, this paper can help increase awareness of the clinical knowledge and practical skills required to provide competent small ruminant care.
By Morgan Peterson (Advisor: Dr. Kasimanickam)
Summary: Arthrogryposis multiplex (AM) is a descriptive term for a group of congenital conditions characterized by multiple joint contractures that develop in utero. AM encompasses a range of etiologies, including heritable genetic mutations, infectious agents, teratogenic plants, and other factors that disrupt normal fetal neuromuscular development across species. In cattle, affected calves present with severe joint contractures, musculoskeletal abnormalities, and are frequently stillborn or die shortly after birth. This case report describes a commercial cow-calf operation with increased incidence of calves born with the AM phenotype following the use of a carrier bull 17 years earlier.
This case provides a framework for examining the broader consequences of inherited disease in cattle and discussing advances in bovine genomics. These advances extend beyond the detection and management of individual genetic defects, providing opportunities to select cattle for disease resistance, reproductive efficiency, longevity, feed efficiency, and environmental resilience. As genomic technologies become increasingly accessible and integrated into cattle breeding programs, veterinarians will play an important role in interpreting genomic information and translating it into practical, economically sustainable breeding and herd-health strategies.
Conclusions: The case of arthrogryposis multiplex is an example of how a deleterious recessive allele introduced through a single breeding decision can persist within a herd for generations. Although the genetic cause of the individual calves presented cannot be confirmed, identification of AM carriers among current breeding bulls emphasizes the value of accurate historical breeding records, the application of targeted genetic testing, and informed mating strategies.
The broader significance of AM extends beyond management of one genetic defect. Advances in genomic selection, reproductive technologies, disease-resistance research, and gene editing are rapidly expanding the ways genetic information can be used in the modern cattle herd. Now more than ever veterinarians’ knowledge and ability to counsel producers to make informed decisions for the genetics of their operations is crucial. The future of bovine genomics is dependent on not only the new sophisticated technologies, but also on accurate phenotypic records, thoughtful breeding strategy, and effective producer-veterinarian collaboration. Ultimately, the lesson of AM is not simply that deleterious alleles can be identified, but that genetic information has value only when it is translated into informed breeding decisions.
By Raquel Dimond (Advisor: Dr. McConnel)
Summary: Swine are encountered in a variety of settings including commercial production, small-scale farming operations, exhibition projects, and as companion animals, and as such are encountered by a variety of veterinarians. Although many diagnostic and therapeutic principles used in companion animal medicine can be applied to pigs, swine possess unique anatomical, physiological, and behavioral characteristics that require species-specific approaches. Furthermore, the same techniques and protocols cannot be applied to both production swine and pigs perceived as companion animals. This review provides a practical guide for veterinarians who may not routinely work with swine patients. Focus is given to topics including methods of restraint, sedation and anesthesia protocols, diagnostic sample collection techniques, peri-anesthetic management, fluid therapy considerations, analgesia protocols, and considerations for common swine diseases. Special attention is given to the unique needs of potbellied and miniature pigs, which are increasingly presented as companion animals. By understanding the major differences between swine and other domestic species, veterinarians can more confidently perform physical examinations, collect diagnostic samples, administer treatments, create appropriate differential diagnoses, and develop appropriate diagnostic and therapeutic plans for swine patients.
Conclusions: Diagnosing a symptomatic pig may seem like a daunting task if unprepared. However, many similarities between pigs and companion animals exist, and the diagnostic process remains constant. By knowing key differences including different restraint considerations, differences in sedation and anesthesia protocols, unique diagnostic sample collection methods, analgesia and fluid considerations, and diseases unique to the production and potbellied pig working with swine becomes manageable and a diagnosis achievable.
By Shelbie Allderdice (Advisor: Dr. Kasimanickam)
Summary: Johne’s disease is a chronic, contagious enteric disease of ruminants caused by Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (MAP). Its prolonged incubation period and ability to establish lifelong intracellular infection make it one of the most challenging diseases to detect and control in cattle populations. Infected animals often remain clinically normal for years while intermittently shedding MAP into the environment, enabling its silent spread throughout herds. As the disease progresses, cattle develop progressive granulomatous enteritis, leading to chronic weight loss, diarrhea, protein-losing enteropathy, reduced production, and eventual death or culling.
Diagnosis remains difficult because available tests vary in sensitivity depending on the stage of infection. Fecal culture, PCR, ELISA, and post-mortem examination each provide valuable information but are most effective when used alongside herd history and clinical assessment. Because no effective treatment exists, herd management focuses on prevention through biosecurity, testing and culling strategies, calf protection, sanitation, and minimizing manure exposure. Johne’s disease continues to impose substantial economic losses through reduced productivity, increased replacement costs, and long-term management expenses. Ongoing research aims to improve diagnostics, vaccines, the molecular understanding of MAP, and herd-level control strategies, offering hope for reducing the burden of this disease in the future.
Conclusions: Johne’s disease remains one of the most significant chronic infectious diseases affecting the cattle industry because of its insidious nature, environmental persistence, and the absence of an effective cure. The ability of MAP to infect calves early on in life, evade the immune system, and remain undetected for years allows the disease to spread silently while causing substantial economic losses and compromising animal health and welfare. Consequently, successful control depends on a comprehensive, long-term approach that combines early detection, strategic diagnostic testing, sound biosecurity practices, calf management, environmental sanitation, and producer education.
Advances in molecular biology, genomics, and immunology have greatly improved our understanding of MAP pathogenesis and are driving the development of more sensitive diagnostic tests and targeted control strategies. Continued research, together with producer participation in herd management and surveillance programs, will be essential for reducing disease prevalence and limiting its economic impact. Although complete eradication of Johne’s disease may not be immediately achievable, sustained implementation of evidence-based prevention and control measures offers the greatest opportunity to improve herd health, enhance productivity, and protect the long-term sustainability of the cattle industry.
By Sierra Criss (Advisor: Dr. Byers)
Summary: High altitude disease (HAD) refers to a right sided heart failure which is accompanied by edema of the brisket area, hence its moniker, brisket disease. High altitude disease is caused by extended periods of hypoxia, usually due to hypoxic conditions found at high elevations, most notably in Colorado, Wyoming, New Mexico and Utah. These hypoxic environments cause the body to compensate for the lack of oxygen through constriction of major vessels, leading to an increase in systemic blood pressure. This pressure increases the afterload of blood that the heart must overcome causing cardiac hypertrophy and finally congestive heart failure. Once clinical signs are observed, the animal is considered to be in heart failure and to date there are no treatment options for this condition in cattle. High altitude disease has been attributed to ~$60 million per year in associated losses for producers, making it a major economic factor in raising cattle at altitude. It has continued to become more prevalent and has recently become one of the top contributors to calf loss, second only to pneumonia. The goal of this paper is to discuss how HAD can affect the beef cattle industry, as well as how producers can implement management strategies to help lower the prevalence and annual loss of cattle to HAD. This paper will cover the history of HAD, how the disease affects the body and how the pathophysiology of this disease leads to clinical signs. It will also discuss diagnostics for HAD, determine susceptibility and prognosis, and how the diagnostic results can be used to better manage production herds. There is still a lot of information that is unknown when it comes to HAD, leaving a lot of room for research and development of better management strategies and possible treatment options in the future.
Conclusions: Although discovered in the early 1900’s, HAD is still a prominent problem for cattle producers. To date, there is no cure with prevention relying solely on the results from PAP testing to determine an individual animals’ susceptibility to developing HAD. The best and most widely used management practice includes moving animals with a high PAP score to lower elevations in hopes of preventing the progression of HAD. It has also been recommended that using bulls that historically tend to have lower PAP scores, namely Hereford bulls, may increase the hardiness of a herd.
More recent studies have pointed to the fact that high altitude disease is becoming more prevalent in feedlot cattle residing in moderate elevations and may be associated with heart and lung infections as well. Overall, there is still a lot that is not known about HAD. There is still a lot of research that needs to be investigated on how PAP scores may be affected by other traits. This would allow ranchers to better manage their herds and decrease economic loss associated with HAD.
By Tessa Ganellen (Advisor: Dr. Marre)
Summary: A seven-year-old female, Boer goat presented to the Washington State University Veterinary Teaching Hospital for a radical mastectomy to treat a precocious udder of approximately one year duration. When the patient’s condition worsened and further diagnostics were performed, the patient was diagnosed with a uterine leiomyosarcoma that could be the inciting cause of the precocious udder. It is possible that hormonal production from the tumor led to subsequent mammary gland enlargement. The patient was ultimately euthanized due to poor surgical prognosis.
Small ruminants can have a variety of reproductive problems, and abnormal udder development is a common complaint amongst goat owners. The condition of precocious udder has also been referred to as galactorrhea or pendulous udder. The condition has an unknown etiology and is commonly seen in young, unbred goats but can affect any age.
A variety of pathologic disorders can cause abnormal udder development. This includes mastitis, caprine arthritis and encephalitis virus (CAE), mammary gland abscess, lactoliths, pseudopregnancy (persistent corpus luteum), neoplasia of the mammary gland or uterus, and other less common causes. Precocious udder is a common complaint especially in Nigerian Dwarf and pet goats and can be both challenging and frustrating to treat. Treatments include hormonal manipulation, treatment of underlying disease such as mastitis, and surgical procedures. Due to the increasing sentimental value of pet goats, management strategies such as radical mastectomy and ovariohysterectomy, which may be impractical in the production animal setting, could see increased implementation in the treatment of precocious udder for pet goats.
Conclusions: Precocious udder is a commonly recognized disease in goats that can have severe impacts on production and quality of life. The myriad causes of abnormal udder enlargement as well as the complexity of the pathways involved in mammogenesis can make treatment of precocious udder challenging. Finding the underlying cause of precocious udder is essential when deciding the proper course of action to treat the condition. Treatments such as hormone manipulation, diet changes, antibiotics for underlying mastitis, supportive care and surgical options should be considered and
treatments should be tailored to match patient and client goals and needs. As emphasized by the novel case of precocious udder development secondary to uterine leiomyosarcoma in the 7 year-old Boer goat, further research into the connections between primary causes of precocious udder and treatment options are needed to ensure patients with this condition can be treated appropriately. As small ruminants transition from production animals to beloved companions, it is possible that this area of research will continue to grow however careful examination and diagnostics of the precocious udder patient is the first step in guiding the treatment of these patients.